| TrainingReference Baseline | Param. Upd. | Build Capab. | Large Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| FT (full)Knowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Large Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| FT (partial)Knowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| PEFT (LoRA, adapters)Knowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Comp. Eff. Task Spec. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular Part. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| ReFTKnowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular | LLM MLLM |
| DAKnowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Dist. Gap Bridging | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | DL FM |
| FSLKnowledge Transfer and Task Specialization | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Few Demo. Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | DL FM |
| RetrainingTemporal Adaptation and Maintenance | Param. Upd. | Drift Remed. | Seq./Inc. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| CLTemporal Adaptation and Maintenance | Param. Upd. | Cont. Adapt. | Seq./Inc. | Bound. Cumul. Unbound. Cumul. | Part. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| TILTemporal Adaptation and Maintenance | Param. Upd. | Cont. Adapt. | Seq./Inc. | Bound. Cumul. | Modular Part. | DL FM |
| DILTemporal Adaptation and Maintenance | Param. Upd. | Cont. Adapt. Drift Remed. | Seq./Inc. | Unbound. Cumul. | Part. Whole | DL FM |
| SFTAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Align. Safety Task Spec. | Instr.-Resp. Corpus | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | LLM MLLM |
| RLHF (LLM Alignment)Alignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Align. Safety | Pref. Pairs | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Surrog. Model Whole | LLM MLLM |
| DPOAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Align. Safety | Pref. Pairs | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | LLM MLLM |
| RLAIF/CAIAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Align. Safety | Constitution-Deriv. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | LLM MLLM |
| RLVR/GRPOAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Reas. | Verif. Task | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | LLM MLLM |
| LPAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Expl. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| LEACEAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Comp. | Fair. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. | Part. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| Adversarial TrainingAlignment, Reasoning, and Trustworthiness | Param. Upd. | Rob. | Large Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL FM LLM |
| Meta-LearningTraining Strategies | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Task Dist. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | DL FM |
| MTLTraining Strategies | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Task Dist. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| Self-PlayTraining Strategies | Param. Upd. | Align. Reas. Task Spec. | Environment-Deriv. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Whole | DL LLM |
| Curriculum LearningTraining Strategies | Pipe.-Med. | Task Spec. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| Active LearningTraining Strategies | Pipe.-Med. | Dist. Gap Bridging Task Spec. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| Data AugmentationData-Centric and Privacy-Preserving Methods | Pipe.-Med. | Rob. Task Spec. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| Semi-SLData-Centric and Privacy-Preserving Methods | Pipe.-Med. | Task Spec. | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Pipe.-Dep. | Pipe.-Dep. | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| SSL / CPTData-Centric and Privacy-Preserving Methods | Param. Upd. | Capab. Ext. Dist. Gap Bridging | Unlabeled | Sched. Perm. Unbound. Cumul. | Part. Whole | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| DP-FTData-Centric and Privacy-Preserving Methods | Param. Upd. | Priv. Preserv. | Large Labeled Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| FLData-Centric and Privacy-Preserving Methods | Param. Upd. | Priv. Preserv. | Decent. | Sched. Perm. | Dist. | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| KDEfficiency and Composition | Cross-Model Transf. | Comp. Eff. | Teacher-Deriv. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Surrog. Model | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| Model CompressionEfficiency and Composition | Param. Compres. | Comp. Eff. | Param.-Only Unlabeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Compress. Artif. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| Task Arith. & Model MergingEfficiency and Composition | Param. Comp. | Capab. Ext. Comp. Eff. | Param.-Only | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Fused | FM LLM MLLM |
| Long-Context Ext.Efficiency and Composition | Arch. Param. Upd. | Capab. Ext. | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | FM LLM MLLM |
| MoEEfficiency and Composition | Arch. Param. Upd. | Capab. Ext. Comp. Eff. | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular Part. | FM LLM MLLM |
| PEInference-Time Adaptation | Context Inj. | Behav. Ctrl. Knowl. Upd. | Zero-Shot | Sess.-Eph. Ver.-Persist. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| Prompt LearningInference-Time Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Task Spec. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | FM LLM MLLM |
| APOInference-Time Adaptation | Context Inj. | Behav. Ctrl. Task Spec. | Few Demo. Zero-Shot | Ver.-Persist. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| RAGInference-Time Adaptation | Context Inj. | Knowl. Upd. | Ext. Corpus | Ver.-Persist. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| ICLInference-Time Adaptation | Context Inj. | Knowl. Upd. Task Spec. | Few Demo. | Sess.-Eph. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| CEInference-Time Adaptation | Context Inj. | Knowl. Upd. Person. | Ext. Corpus User Interact. | Ver.-Persist. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| TTAInference-Time Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Drift Remed. | Test-Only | Transient | Part. Whole | DL FM |
| Test-Time Compute ScalingInference-Time Adaptation | Infer.-Time Search | Reas. | Zero-Shot | Sess.-Eph. | I/O Space | LLM MLLM |
| CalibrationCalibration, Personalization, and Multimodal Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Reliab. | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular | DL FM LLM ML MLLM |
| Cross-Modal AlignmentCalibration, Personalization, and Multimodal Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Capab. Ext. | Pair. Multimod. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. | FM MLLM |
| Modality-Spec. AdaptersCalibration, Personalization, and Multimodal Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Capab. Ext. Comp. Eff. | Pair. Multimod. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Modular | MLLM |
| Multimodal Instr. TuningCalibration, Personalization, and Multimodal Adaptation | Param. Upd. | Align. Capab. Ext. | Pair. Multimod. | Ad-hoc Perm. Sched. Perm. | Part. Whole | MLLM |
| Machine UnlearningKnowledge Modification and Activation-Based Adaptation | Param. Comp. Param. Upd. | Priv. Preserv. Rem. Knowl. | Forget Set Spec. | Ad-hoc Perm. | Fused Part. | DL FM LLM MLLM |
| Knowledge EditingKnowledge Modification and Activation-Based Adaptation | Param. Comp. Param. Upd. | Knowl. Upd. | Small Labeled | Ad-hoc Perm. | Part. | LLM MLLM |
| Activation SteeringKnowledge Modification and Activation-Based Adaptation | Act.-Space Manip. | Align. Safety | Small Labeled Unlabeled | Transient | Activ.-Space | LLM MLLM |